91�ȱ�

Before 1922, all of Ireland was ruled directly from Westminster.

However, many Irish people wanted independence from Britain.

Those who did were known as nationalists and by late 1918 most of them supported Sinn Féin, which had become the largest political party in Ireland after the December 1918 General Election.

To try to achieve independence, the new Sinn Féin MPs refused to take their seats (abstained) at Westminster in London.

Instead, in January 1919, they set up a rival parliament in Dublin, called ��á���� Éireann.

In January 1919, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) started a guerrilla war against the British.

This was known as the Anglo-Irish War and was a very violent conflict.

At the same time, sectarian violence erupted in the northern counties, particularly in the cities of Belfast and Londonderry.

To deal with this sectarian conflict, Westminster established the mainly ProtestantUlster Special Constabulary.

Westminster also started looking for a political solution and the result was the Government of Ireland Act, December 1920, whichpartitioned Ireland.

It stated that Ireland would remain part of Britain but a 91�ȱ� Rule Parliament in Dublin would be given some control over their own affairs.

The key terms of the Government of Ireland Act were as follows:

• Ireland divided (partitioned) into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland (which would later become known as the Irish Free State).
• Northern Ireland would consist of counties Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Derry-Londonderry and Tyrone. Southern Ireland was to be made up of the remaining 26 counties.
• Each region was to have a 91�ȱ� Rule parliament to deal with local issues, such as education and health. Britain would continue to look after major policies, such as foreign policy and the military.
• Proportional representation would be used in elections to ensure minorities were properly represented.
• The local parliaments would be responsible for some taxes, for example road tax, and Westminster would control the main taxes, for instance income tax.
• A Council of Ireland, with representatives from North and South, would be set up to discuss issues of mutual interest and to work towards establishing a single parliament for the whole of Ireland.

There was a wide variety of reactions in Ireland to the Government of Ireland Act 1920.

Elections for the new parliaments were held in May 1921.

For many years before 1920, northern unionists had campaigned against 91�ȱ� Rule as they feared being dominated by a Catholic majority in a Dublin parliament.

They thought all-Ireland 91�ȱ� Rule would mean “Rome Rule”.

They specifically disliked certain parts of the Act, such as:

• The Council of Ireland and its aim of eventually establishing a parliament for the whole island.
• The reduction in the number of Ulster MPs at Westminster.
• The loosening of Ireland’s union with Britain.

However, northern Unionists accepted the Government of Ireland Act because:

• They would still be part of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth, and be ruled by the King
• They would have a parliament of their own in Belfast, to control their own affairs, and would not have to join a Catholic dominated all-Ireland parliament.
• They had a secure Protestant majority in the six counties (65% Protestant, 35% Catholic) and so could pass laws which suited them.
• They could eventually abolish proportional representation which would increase their political dominance.

Realising that the Act was the best possible they could achieve in the circumstances they quickly organised elections for their new parliament.

1921 Northern election (March 1921)

In the election, the Ulster Unionist Party, led by Sir James Craig, won 40 of the 52 seats.

Craig became the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland.

The new parliament was opened in June, by King George V, in its temporary accommodation in Belfast City Hall.

The northern nationalists and their leaders, like Joe Devlin, were very alarmed by the Government of Ireland Act:

• They were disappointed Ireland did not become independent.
• They hated the partitioning of the island.
• They felt isolated in a Protestant-dominated Northern Ireland.
• They were dismayed at the lack of safeguards for their position.

Many northern nationalists were convinced that partition would not last and so they refused to recognise the new state.

As a result, unionists believed that nationalists wanted to destroy Northern Ireland.

The high levels of sectarian violence in the early months of Northern Ireland’s existence increased each side’s doubts and suspicions.

Southern unionists were very dissatisfied as the Act had a great impact on them.

They felt betrayed by both the British and by northern unionists because partition left them isolated in the new southern state.

They felt economically, politically and physically vulnerable.

Sinn Féin decided to play no role in the negotiations leading to the Government of Ireland Act because independence was not offered.

They rejected the Act completely as they disliked many parts of it, particularly:

• The lack of complete independence.
• The introduction of partition.

However, Sinn Féin used the 91�ȱ� Rule elections in May 1921, to elect a second ��á���� and the Anglo-Irish War continued.

By mid-1921, both the British government and most nationalists realised that they had reached a military stalemate in the Anglo-Irish War which had dragged on since 1919.

The actions of the IRA and the activities of the British Black and Tans (an armed force set up to provide back up to the Royal Irish Constabulary in their fight against the IRA) were increasing bitterness and distress.

The cost of the war was escalating rapidly and the destruction of property was on a huge scale.

Leading churchmen and the King called for an end to the violence.

Also, the British government needed more time to focus on other pressing matters, like social problems and the economic slump following World War One.

So, a truce was called in July 1921 and negotiations were held in London.

After two months of talks, the nationalist delegation reluctantly accepted the terms presented by Prime Minister David Lloyd George.

The Anglo-Irish War was finally brought to an end by the Anglo-Irish Treaty, 1922.

The Anglo-Irish Treaty established a 91�ȱ� Rule-style parliament for Southern Ireland and gave the region a degree of independence from Britain.

The main terms were:

• Southern Ireland would be known as the Irish Free State.
• It would have its own parliament in Dublin, elected by proportional representation.
• It would be a dominion within the British Commonwealth.
• Members would take an Oath of Allegiance to the British monarch.
• The King’s representative in the Irish Free State would be a Governor-General.
• The British would withdraw its military, except from three strategic ports (Cobh, Berehaven, Lough Swilly)
• It would have its own army.
• Free State citizens could appeal judgements in law cases in the British Privy Council.
• Northern Ireland had the right to opt out of the Irish Free State.
• A Boundary Commission would be set up to decide the exact location of the border between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State.

Although it was still not full independence, the Anglo-Irish Treaty gave Dublin more power than the Government of Ireland Act had done.

However, the Treaty divided Irish republicans.

Many Treaty supporters, like chief Irish negotiator Michael Collins, also disliked the terms but felt they were:

• A step towards independence which could be built on.

• The best deal nationalists could get at that time, especially as the British had threatened to restart the war and many nationalists in Ireland wanted peace.

• The links with Britain were only symbolic.

Although the new Irish Free State had more rights and responsibilities than Northern Ireland, some parts of the Treaty were particularly resented by the anti-treaty nationalists.

These were:

• Partition – which meant the abandonment of half a million nationalists living inside Northern Ireland.
• The Oath of Allegiance to the King.
• The role of the Governor-General in the Irish Free State.
• The power of the British Privy Council.
• The Irish Free State's dominion status within the British Commonwealth.

After a long and angry ����� debate, the Treaty was eventually accepted by 64 votes to 57.

Those who opposed it, such as Éamon de Valera, the leader of Sinn Féin and President of the ��á����, walked out in protest.

The resulting split in Sinn Féin and the IRA eventually developed into a civil war between the pro-Treaty and anti-Treaty sides which lasted from 1922 to 1923.

In the end, the pro-Treaty side won and, under the leadership of Cumann na nGaedheal, the Free State set about establishing the new state and increasing its independence from Britain.

During this period, Éamon de Valera continued to lead the anti-Treaty side.

In 1926, he left Sinn Féin and established Fianna Fáil.

It entered the ��á���� Éireann in 1927 and within a year had become the official opposition party.

Whilst relations between the Irish Free State and Britain had been very bitter during the Anglo-Irish War, there was less animosity over the terms of the Treaty.

The British were satisfied that the Irish Free State was still in the Commonwealth, the King’s role was recognised and they had the use of three ports.

Relations between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State were poor.

James Craig, who had refused to participate in the Treaty negotiations, was furious at the final terms.

Unionists believed:

1. The Treaty’s terms violated the 1920 Government of Ireland Act.
2. The unity of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth had been weakened.
3. The security of Britain was under threat due to the loss of most of its military bases in the Irish Free State.
4. The Boundary Commission was a threat to Protestants in the border communities.

Craig promptly opted Northern Ireland out of the Treaty arrangements.

Northern nationalists were divided over the Treaty.

At the same time, the Boundary Commission held out some prospect of making Northern Ireland too small to survive.

The Anglo-Irish Treaty stated that a Boundary Commission should decide the exact location of the border between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland.

The border was to be, ‘in accordance with the wishes of the inhabitants, so far as they might agree with economic and geographic conditions’.

Unionists hoped the economic conditions would be the main test used; nationalists hoped the wishes of the people would dominate.

The Commission was made up of three representatives; one from Northern Ireland, one from the Irish Free State and a neutral chairman.

It did not begin its work until late 1924 because:

• The civil war had raged on until 1923.
• Sectarian violence was disrupting Belfast.
• The British were reluctant to make any changes which might be contentious and lead to the fall of the new governments in Ireland.
• Unionists, who were content with the existing border and feared Northern Ireland would be undermined, had refused to nominate a representative.

The Boundary Commission’s findings that there would be minor changes to the boundary, were leaked to The Morning Post newspaper.

Not only was the border left largely as it was, the Commission actually recommended giving some land from the Irish Free State to Northern Ireland.

The three governments held urgent talks because rumours around the Boundary Commission’s precise decision were causing unrest in Ireland.

They agreed Boundary Commission terms:

• The border would remain unchanged.
• The proposed Council of Ireland would be abolished.
• Northern Ireland did not have to pay any more land annuities.
• The ��á���� would not have to pay towards the United Kingdom’s national debt (as agreed in the Treaty) but would pay pensions to ex-Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) members.

Most of these terms proved unpopular with nationalists.

1. They had expected areas with Catholic majorities in the border regions to be transferred to the Irish Free State
2. Southern nationalists were angry with their government because it had not got a substantial revision of its frontiers.

Partition now seemed permanent and so nationalist MPs finally started attending the Northern Ireland Parliament.

Unionists in Northern Ireland were delighted that no territory changed hands and the Council of Ireland would never meet.